BIGD conducted an ethnographic study in 2023 to understand the transformations taking place in rural communities of Bangladesh. Based on that experience, we realized that the various social, economic, cultural, and political characteristics once considered intrinsic to rural identity—particularly in studies on rural Bangladesh from the 1970s and 1980s—have undergone significant changes in different dimensions and directions.
The perspective of viewing villages as isolated from cities or the global context has changed (Partha, 2024); we now live in an era of market economy and globalization. This paper looks into the changes that have occurred in Bangladesh over the past 25 years, with emphasis on migration, culture, local institutional and social stratification, financial inclusion, environment and climate change, built environment, and agriculture.
Authors: Shatil, Tanvir; Zaman, Shahaduz
Type: Working Paper
Year: 2025
Two kinds of changes are evident in the cultural landscape of rural Bangladesh. While the visible changes can be easily discernable, the invisible changes are just as difficult to perceive. This Working Paper looks at how the local communities observe and comprehend the transformation in the cultural domains of rural Bangladesh. For data collection, 10 villages across several districts of the country were surveyed for narrative enquiries through a focused ethnographic approach.
Authors: Shatil, Tanvir; Zaman, Shahaduz
Type: Working Paper
Year: 2025
Has digitalization of public services contributed to improving accountability, transparency or improved the lives of citizens in an equitable manner? While digitalization is inevitable and essential for improving governance and development, the pathway to equitable development by digitizing services is not straightforward. The benefits of digitalization are not necessarily equally distributed, with the already marginalized being further disadvantaged when established ways of access are changed.
This report is a collection of selected papers and ideas that were first presented at BIGD’s 2022 international conference titled ‘Digitalization and New Frontiers of Service Delivery: Opportunities and Challenges’. Each chapter proposes ideas and recommendations from different perspectives based on rigorous analysis of evidence.
Authors: Cortijo, Marie Jo A.; Rabbani, Mehnaz
Type: Report
Year: 2025
This study evaluates a large-scale state-sponsored program in India that aimed to close the digital gender gap by distributing free smartphones to women and expanding 4G network access in rural areas. While the program initially succeeded in reversing gender gaps in smartphone ownership, these gains were short-lived. Over time, many women lost control of the devices, and men became the primary users. Nearly five years later, the program showed limited long-term impact on outcomes such as phone use, gender norms, information access, or local economic activity—though some labor market shifts were observed. Despite broader household adoption of smartphones, persistent digital gender gaps remain. The findings highlight that in gender-unequal and resource-constrained environments, improving affordability alone is not sufficient to sustainably close digital access gaps for women.
Author: Giorgia, Barboni; Anwesha, Bhattacharya; Erica, Field; Rohini, Pande; Natalia, Rigol; Simone, Schaner; Aruj, Shukla; Charity, Moore
Type: Working Paper
Year: 2024
This study explored the relationship between digital financial services (DFS), women’s economic empowerment (WEE), and maternal stress in rural Kakamega, Kenya. Drawing on data from a randomized control trial of a mobile phone-based health insurance and savings program, researchers conducted two rounds of qualitative research in 2022, including in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and participant observations. The findings show that access to DFS—such as mobile money, digital savings, credit schemes, and health insurance—helped improve women’s financial independence, reduced financial stress, eased marital conflicts, and enhanced resilience to mental stress. However, the benefits were not universal. Barriers such as lack of mobile phone ownership, low financial literacy, limited income opportunities, and high DFS loan interest rates negatively impacted some women. Many reported falling into debt traps due to an inability to repay soft loans, worsening both their financial and mental health. The study concludes that financial literacy and spousal support are critical for maximizing the benefits of DFS. To truly empower women—particularly during the vulnerable perinatal period—financial inclusion programs must also engage men and address foundational issues like literacy and economic opportunity.
Author: Caroline, Wainaina; Emmy, Igonya; Wendy, Janssens; Janerose, Kweyu; Estelle, Sidze
Type: Working Paper
Year: 2024
This study reports findings from a randomized controlled trial in Uganda that provided unconditional cash transfers to married women, varying the payment method (cash or mobile money) and whether spouses were informed. Results show that mobile money transfers significantly enhance women’s economic independence and decision-making power, as reflected in increased personal labor income and greater say in household decisions. In contrast, cash transfers are more effective in reducing intimate partner violence (IPV), especially when both spouses are informed about the transfer. These findings reveal a critical trade-off: while digital payments promote women’s financial control, they may be less effective in addressing IPV. The study underscores the importance of considering both economic empowerment and safety outcomes when designing transfer programs for women.
Author: Giulia, Greco; Selim, Gulesci; Pallavi, Prabhakar; Munshi, Sulaiman
Type: Working Paper
Year: 2025
A 13-month field experiment in a South Indian garment factory tested the impact of an employer-provided digital Earned Wage Access (EWA) app, allowing women to access up to 50% of their earned wages before payday. About one-third of women in the treatment group used the app, resulting in a 33% reduction in informal borrowing and a 20% decrease in consumption cutbacks—indicating improved financial liquidity. The intervention also led to a 21% drop in worker turnover and a 12% increase in overall earnings, largely due to longer workforce participation. Productivity rose by 8.1%, with the highest gains (23.3%) among financially stressed workers. Notably, increased liquidity did not result in overspending but instead built financial confidence. While savings behavior and intra-household bargaining power remained unchanged, the study demonstrates how flexible pay and workplace-based digital financial services can enhance financial resilience, productivity, and retention for low-income women workers in developing contexts.
Authors: Achyuta, Adhvaryu; Sowmya, Dhanaraj; Smit, Gade; Anant, Nyshadham; Apoorv, Somanchi
Type: Working Paper
Year: 2025
Traditional indicators of Women’s Economic Empowerment (WEE) are often too broad to effectively measure specific behavioral outcomes like women’s savings behavior (WSB). This study addresses that gap by identifying contextually relevant WEE indicators that closely align with savings behavior, using data from 1,498 FINCA Uganda women savers. It employs a two-step validation approach. First, qualitative methods such as focus groups and cognitive interviews establish a set of WEE indicators tailored to the local context. Then, machine learning models test how well these indicators predict actual savings behavior. The study links women’s self-perceived empowerment with real financial actions—setting savings goals, making deposits, and using funds purposefully. Further validation comes from a subsample exposed to a low-cost coaching intervention, which strengthens the WEE-WSB relationship and reveals which empowerment factors make coaching more or less effective. Notably, the research highlights often-overlooked domains such as external social influence and the complexity of decision-making burdens. This work offers a more targeted, behavior-linked approach to measuring WEE, with potential to improve the design and evaluation of development programs across varied contexts.
Authors: Tevosyan, Anahit; Graham, Scott; Smiths, Joeri
Type: Journal Article
Year: 2025
The Universal Pension Scheme (UPS) was launched in Bangladesh in August 2023 to enhance economic security for the aging population. Despite extensive government promotion, the participation rate remains low, underscoring the critical role of public awareness. Following the worldwide pattern, the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) introduced its first contribution-based Universal Pension Scheme (UPS) on 17 August 2023, aiming to address the economic security concerns of the country’s rising older population. The study aimed to investigate awareness of the UPS and its correlates among the Bangladeshi population.
Authors: Rima, Sharmin; Faysal, Md. Mahir; Mamun, Abdullah Al; Sonia, Khadija Akter; Monia, Hossna Tasmia; Nuva, Anika Tahseen; Rabbi, Ahbab Mohammad Fazle; Mamun, Abdullah-Al; Hossain, Mohammad Bellal
Type: Journal Article
Year: 2025
Phone-based assessments gained prominence during the COVID-19 pandemic as an alter-
native to in-person assessments and as a consequence of growing concerns over monitoring children’s learning during this extended period of school closures (Sobers, Anicet, Tanoh, Akpe, Ball and Jasinska, 2021). As a result of social distancing protocols during the pandemic, phone-based assessments were employed to measure the increase in learning levels on account of these interventions. This required the assessments to be adapted from their in-person versions, ensuring their administration across the telephone. This paper establishes the equivalence between a phone-based survey and an in-person survey.
Authors: Rahman, Khandker Wahedur; Hossain, Marjan
Type: Report
Year: 2023
